Rise of the Celts

"Selection of carvings from
the Castro de Santa Trega"
<https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/> 16 March 2019.

What defines a Celt, and do they exist in the modern world? Dr. Jennifer Paxton states that there are three characteristics which could define a Celt: (1) shared Celtic genealogy, (2) use of a Celtic language, (3) and a history of Celtic art.

Dr. Paxton of the Catholic University of America presented a lecture entitled The Celtic World which is available at The Great Courses online. Exceptional material and a personable presentation. I cannot recommend this course more highly.

    The Great Courses <https://www.thegreatcourses.com/index.php> 31 Dec 2020.

Do all modern descendants of the Celtic people share all three characteristics? Well, no.

-On this page, we will investigate shared Celtic genealogy as seen through yDNA analysis.
-On, the "Evolution of the Indo-European Language" page, we will investigate the evolution of the proto-Celtic language.
-On the Celtic Art page, we will investigate distribution of Hallstatt and La Tene art in the Celtic World.
-Then, we will consider which peoples of the modern world may fit the wider definition of a Celt.

I. Celtic Genetic Genealogy

1. Celtic DNA

I postulate that the essence of a Celt is found in DNA. Celtic males are descended from Haplogroup R, specifically R-P312 who emerged c. 2,300 BCE and lived in central Gaul, now modern-day France. Thus, any Male whose downstream marker descends from R-P312 is a Celt.

R-P312
R-S116
  R1b1a1a2a1a2

c. 2,300 BCE

Proto Celtic culture.
Proto-Celt split from the Celt-Italic subclade.
Lived in Gaul (France), western Europe.

A female, on her own, can claim to be a Celt if she is Haplogroup H and her family history originates in the Celtic Fringe. Why? Female Haplogroup H is most closely associated with male Haplogroup R as they migrated together up the Danube Valley and west into western Europe. In truth, a specific group of women chose to associate with a specific group of men over a very extended period of time. That's just human nature.

Corroboration is found from analysis of remains found in proven Celtic sites in Europe.

Genetic studies on the limited amount of material available suggest continuity between Iron Age people from areas considered Celtic and the earlier Bell Beaker culture of Bronze Age Western Europe. Like the Bell Beakers, ancient Celts carried a substantial amount of steppe ancestry, which is derived from pastoralists who expanded westwards from the Pontic-Caspian steppe during late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Examined individuals overwhelmingly carry types of the paternal haplogroup R-M269 while the maternal haplogroups H and U are frequent. These lineages are associated with steppe ancestry. The spread of Celts into Iberia and the emergence of the Celtiberians is associated with an increase in north central European ancestry in Iberia, and may be connected to the expansion of the Urnfield culture. The paternal haplogroup I2a1a1a* has been detected among Celtiberians. There appears to have been significant gene flow between among Celts of Western Europe during the Iron Age. Modern populations of Western Europe, particularly those who still speak Celtic languages, display substantial genetic continuity with the Iron Age populations of the same areas.

Note: Persons with Haplogroup I (I & I2a) were the first Mesolithic farmers of Europe; as proven by Mesolithic graves in Wiltshire, England. Their migration path is believed to be from the Levant and across the Mediterranean and then north into Europe. Were the Iberians of 1,500 BCE their direct descendants?

    "Celts" <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts#Genetics> 3 January 2021.

Of note, researchers are looking for proof of Steppe ancestry, male haplogroup R and female haplogroup H. But, they do not spend the effort and funds to test down to the terminal SNP. Identification down to the terminal SNP would add greater understanding to the story of modern human's path through Europe. 

Evolution of Haplogroup R1b1a1a2a1a2a/ R-DF27

In the last decade, great strides have been made identifying new SNPs down the human genome. And, anthropologists have been able to match these mutations to specific places on the timeline of human history. With this information, we can affix our forefathers to specific times and places in the migration of modern man.

Back when, anthropologists investigated whether R1b1a1a2 [M269], who emerged during the Neolithic Period, was connected to Cro-Magnon Man and the cave paintings of the refugium in southern France. Subsequently, M269 could have been the group who followed the retreating ice shield north across the land bridge to Britain and Ireland. With new information gained more recently, those possibilities have been put to rest.

[In] articles published around 2000 it was proposed that this clade [M269] had been in Europe before the last Ice Age. But by 2010, more recent periods such as the European Neolithic have become the focus of proposals. A range of newer estimates for R1b1b2, [now R1b1a1a2] or at least its dominant parts in Europe, are from 4,000 to a maximum of about 10,000 years ago, and looking in more detail is seen as suggesting a migration from Western Asia via southeastern Europe.

    "Haplogroup R1b" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b> 25 July 2015.

The yDNA sequence for our Lewis family has been traced down to our terminal SNP, R-DF27.

My Markers: Haplogroup R
M343, L278+, L754 (P), L389+, P297+, M269+, L23+, L51+, P310+ & P311+, L151 (P), P312+, Z40481 (P), ZZ11 (P), DF27+

2. When and where and how the ancestors of the proto-Celts lived

When humans first ventured out of Africa some 60,000 years ago, they left genetic footprints still visible today. By mapping the appearance and frequency of genetic markers in modern peoples, we create a picture of when and where ancient humans moved around the world. These great migrations eventually led the descendants of a small group of Africans to occupy even the farthest reaches of the Earth.

    "The Human Journey," National Geographic Genographic Project <https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/human-journey/> 12 July 2015.

The evolution of SNP DF27 is cited by the International Society of Genetic Genealogy [ISOGG]. And, DF27 has acquired the moniker, the Gascon-Iberian Celts.

a. The evolution of Haplogroup R has been well cited:

-R [M207] emerged from P at Point PQR on the Central Asian Steppe.
-R1 [M173] emerged on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.
-R1b [M343] migrated south and west to Persia.
-R-L278 settled in the Tigris River Valley Refugium. Started farming.
-R-L754/ ??? lived in the Tigris River Valley Refugium.
-R-L389 survived the Younger Dryas Stadial (the Big Freeze) at the end of the last Ice Age in their refugium in the vicinity of the Tigris River Valley.
-R-P297 migrated north through the Caucasus Mountains.
-R-M269 settled on the Pontic-Caspian Steppe, the location of the Urheimat of the proto-Indo-European language.

b. We locate R-M269 beginning in about 4,900 BCE living on the Pontic-Caspian Steppe north of the Black Sea during the Late Neolithic Period. Pre 4,000 BCE, this location is believed to be the Urheimat (ancient homeland) of the proto-Indo-European language. R-M269 is believed to be the forefather of the Kurgan culture.

Modern linguists have placed the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe, a distinct geographic and archeological region extending from the Danube estuary to the Ural mountains to the east and North Caucasus to the south. The Neolithic, Eneolithic and early Bronze Age cultures in Pontic-Caspian steppe has been called the Kurgan culture (4200-2200 BCE). . . .

Horses were first domesticated around 4600 BCE in the Caspian Steppe, perhaps somewhere around the Don or the lower Volga, and soon became a defining element of steppe culture. . .

This might have happened with the appearance of the Dnieper-Donets culture (c. 5100-4300 BCE). This was the first truly Neolithic society in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe. Domesticated animals (cattle, sheep and goats) were herded throughout the steppes and funeral rituals were elaborate. Sheep wool would play an important role in Indo-European society, notably in the Celtic and Germanic (R1b branches of the Indo-Europeans) clothing traditions up to this day. . . Towards the end of the 5th millennium, an elite starts to develop with cattle, horses and copper used as status symbols.

    "Haplogroup R1b" <http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_R1b_Y-DNA.shtml> 26 July 2015.

c. We locate R-L23* from about 4,200 to 2,800 BCE migrating west, and then south around the Black Sea, and then west again up the Danube Valley. And as people still do today, they headed up the valley. This was the Copper/ Bronze Age. By 4,000 BCE, R-L23 spoke a language of the Northwest branch of the Indo-European language.

Another migration across the Caucasus happened shortly before 3700 BCE, when the Maykop culture the world's first Bronze Age society, suddenly materialized in the north-west Caucasus, apparently out of nowhere. The origins of Maykop are still uncertain, but archeologists have linked it to contemporary Chalcolithic cultures in Assyria and western Iran.** Archeology also shows a clear diffusion of bronze working and kurgan-type burials from the Maykop culture to the Pontic Steppe, where the Yamna culture developed soon afterwards (from 3500 BCE). Kurgan (a.k.a. tumulus) burials would become a dominant feature of ancient Indo-European societies and were widely used by the Celts, Romans, Germanic tribes, and Scythians, among others.

    "Haplogroup R1b" <http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_R1b_Y-DNA.shtml> 26 July 2015.

*A branch of R-L23 migrated south to the Greek Peninsula c. 1,800 BCE. They were the forefathers of the Mycenaeans and Trojans of Ancient Greece and probably the Hittites of central Anatolia.
**Those Chalcolithic cultures were descendants of the Indo-European family and cousins to R-L23.

The Yamna period (3500-2500 BCE) is the most important one in the creation of Indo-European culture and society. Middle Eastern R1b people had been living and blending to some extent with the local R1a foragers and herders for over a millennium, perhaps even two or three. The close cultural contact and interactions between R1a and R1b people all over the Pontic-Caspian Steppe resulted in the creation of a common vernacular, a new lingua franca, which linguists have called Proto-Indo-European (PIE). It is pointless to try to assign another region of origin to the PIE language. Linguistic similarities exist between PIE and Caucasian and Hurrian languages in the Middle East on the one hand, and Uralic languages in the Volga-Ural region on the other hand, which makes the Pontic Steppe the perfect intermediary region.

During the Yamna period cattle and sheep herders adopted wagons to transport their food and tents, which allowed them to move deeper into the steppe, giving rise to a new mobile lifestyle that would eventually lead to the great Indo-European migrations. This type of mass migration in which whole tribes moved with the help of wagons was still common in Gaul at the time of Julius Caesar, and among Germanic peoples in the late Antiquity.

    "Haplogroup R1b" <http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_R1b_Y-DNA.shtml> 26 July 2015.

d. We locate R-L51 from about 2,800 to 2,500 BCE. They migrated up the Danube River Valley to the vicinity of the Hungarian Plain and the Austrian Alps. This was the early Bronze Age where they developed new technologies. Here, they continued to speak a language of the Northwest branch of the Indo-European language.

Anthropologists have suggested that the peoples of R-L51 were the factors of the Hallstatt Culture of Austria. Perhaps their descendants were. But, this ethnic group passed through Austria about 1,300 years before the estimated time of the Hallstatt Culture.

e. We locate R-L11 from about 2,500 BCE. They migrated north and settled in the Black Forest along the Danube River (vic Regensburg) southwest toward Freiberg in what is now southern Germany. One thousand years later, this would be the cite of Heuneburg, the first "city" north of the Alps.

Although best known for its role as an important early Celtic centre from the 7th to 5th centuries BC, the Heuneburg was occupied at several other points during its history. . . The first settlement on the site dates to the Middle Bronze Age (15th to 12th century BC). At this time, the main plateau was fortified with a massive ditch-and-bank enclosure, including a wooden wall. The settlement was abandoned at the beginning of the Urnfield period. This abandonment apparently did not entail a violent destruction. During the Urnfield period, there was a burial area in the location of the later Südsiedlung.

The citadel was reoccupied and refortified around 700 BC; adjacent areas were occupied at the same time, including Alte Burg and Grosse Heuneburg. The Heuneburg complex developed briskly, and by 600 BC, it was one of the key centres of power and trade in Celtic Halstatt Southern Germany. Major changes in internal structure occurred around that time. Before 500 BC, the site suffered a major destruction, followed by a second flourish and a further destruction in the 5th century BC. . .The conjunction of a prominent fortified site, elaborate burials, specialised craft production and trade of valuable imported goods class the Heuneburg with a small group of similar important early Celtic sites, the so-called Fürstensitze. . . .

    "Heuneburg," <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuneburg> 11 January 2021/

At this point there was a major split in not only the subclades of R-L11 but also in culture and language. By 2,380 BCE, they spoke the Celt-Italic language which split from the Northwest branch of the Indo-European language.

Whether or not R-L11 was part of the the Hallstatt Culture of Bronze Age Austria, we the descendants of R-L11 possessed some Hallstatt influence and Bronze Age technology. From southern Germany and Gaul, we took these skills and new branches of the Indo-European language to dispersed locations in western Europe.

R-U106, descendants of R-L11, spoke proto-German. They migrated north to Saxony in Germany, the Netherlands, and across the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia.

f. We locate R-P312 from about 2,300 BCE. The Gauls, aka the proto-Celts, migrated west across the Rhine River Valley and settled in Gaul (France). They are the forefathers of all Celtic peoples. They spoke the proto-Celtic language which had just split from Celt-Italic. Their descendants split into several individual branches, migrating to Gallaecia on the Iberian Peninsula, over the Alps into northern Italy, up the Jutland Peninsula and across the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, and from Calais to Britain and across the Irish Sea to Ireland.

II. Ancient Migrations

1. On to Gaul

In the distant past, modern man migrated out of Africa. The ancestors of the Celts (Haplogroup R) wound up passing through the Arabian Peninsula to the Central Asian Steppe, east of the Caspian Sea, by 30,000 BCE. From the Steppe, a disparate group of tribes migrated together south of the Caspian Sea and west to the Tigris River where they sojourned during the Younger Dryas Stadial, the "Big Freeze." With the final thaw of the last Ice Age, some of the tribes migrated up through the Gates of the Caucasus where they sojourned on the Pontic-Caspian Steppe. And there. the proto-Indo-European language emerged c. 5,000 BCE.

The tribes who would become the Celts (Haplogroup R-M269) migrated en group amongst their distant cousins from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe up the Danube Valley and into central Europe by about 2,300 BCE. All along the way, many of the disparate tribes dropped off to settle or go their own way. Although the name Celt refers to a group of individual tribes, their common language and common culture held these disparate tribes together as one Celtic people.

In about 2,500 BCE, the remaining group of tribes (Haplogroup R-L11) reached the Black Forest of southern Germany at the headwaters of the Danube River. This was a truly disparate group of loosely aligned tribes who spoke different languages and had different lineages. Amongst the tribes were the Germans who spoke proto-German (Haplogroup R-U106) and the Celts who spoke proto-Celtic (Haplogroup R-P312).

At this point, there was a major split in not only the groups of tribes (Haplogroup R-L11) but also in culture and language. Whether or not our direct ancestors were part of the Hallstatt Culture of Bronze Age Austria, their descendants possessed some Hallstatt influence and Bronze Age technology. From southern Germany and Gaul, we took those skills and new branches of the Indo-European language to dispersed locations in western Europe. From there, our cousins who spoke proto-German (Haplogroup R-U106), migrated north to Saxony in Germany, the Netherlands, and across the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia.

2. The Gauls

In about 2,300 BCE, the Gauls, aka the proto-Celts (Haplogroup R-P312), migrated west across the Rhine River Valley and settled in Gaul (France). They are the forefathers of all Celtic peoples. They spoke the proto-Celtic language. Their descendants split into multiple branches, migrating to Gallaecia on the Iberian Peninsula, over the Alps into northern Italy, up the Jutland Peninsula and across the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, and from Calais to Britain and across the Irish Sea to Ireland.

As of 2019, there has been further research on the downstream markers for R-P312, the marker for the Gauls of central France.

My diagram. Information gleaned from
Williamson, Alex, The Big Tree, 5 March 2019 <http://www.ytree.net/> 6 March 2019.

a. From the chart we learn:

1. At the first division, P312 split into 7 known branches:
    -The Atlantic Celts went to western France and the British Isles.
   
-The Angle Celts went to the southern part of the Jutland Peninsula.
    -The Nordic Celts went to the northern part of the Jutland Peninsula, Norway, and southern Sweden.
    -And, the Iberian, Italic, and Belgic Celts remained in France.

2. At the second division:
    -The Belgic Celts became its own branch, remaining in northeast France.
    -The Iberian/ Italic Celts became their own branch and probably began their migrations south from central France.

3. At the third division:
    -The Iberian Celts went to southwestern France and northwestern and western Iberia.
    -The Italic Celts went south to the Hinterrhein and over the Alps, perhaps to the Po Valley of modern Italy.

Special Note: Otzi, the Ice Man, died at the top of an Alpine Pass within meters of the current Austrian/ Italian border. He lived over 5,300 years ago. Thus, he predates our Celtic cousins by about 1,100 years. His paternal genetic haplogroup, G2a, is linked to the ancient peoples of the Mid East and Sardinia. He is important to us; as he proves that ancient man traversed an ancient version of a highway over Alpine passes from northern Europe to southern Europe.

b. "All Gaul [was] divided into three parts": Aquitania, Celtica, and Belgica.
    -All three regions and their Celtic tribes encountered Julius Caesar during the 1st Century BCE.
    -Julius Caesar began his war of ethnic cleansing in 58 BCE, having just butchered the Helvetti of modern Switzerland.
    -Then Caesar moved north and campaigned on the Rhine River, destroying the Belgique Celts and their ethnic German confederates.
    -Then Caesar scourged northwestern Gaul, putting those tribes to the sword.
    -In 55 and 54 BCE, Caesar crossed the English Channel to spread Roman hegemony to the British Isles.
    -Caesar completed his conquest of Gaul in 52 BCE at the Battle of Alesia and the defeat of the combined Celtic army of Vercingetorix.
    -The Celts living on the continent were doomed to being subsumed into the Roman Empire, losing their Celtic identity.
    -Some say that the Bretons of Armorica (now Brittany) retained their Celtic identity throughout Roman occupation and the Kingdoms of France. Breizh (Brittany) is an excepted member of the Celtic League whereas Galicia and Astorias, autonomous regions of Spain, are not.

c. But, those were not our people. Our Celtic peoples were from the northwest of the Iberian peninsula. By 1,000 BCE, our Celtic peoples had left the continent at the Promunturium Celticum for the British Isles. Are we and our Celtic cousins the only survivors of the Celtic peoples of Iberia? Well, no. A significant percentage of the populous of southern France, the Basque homeland, and northwestern Iberia carry R-DF27, the Iberian-Celtic genetic marker. But. . .
    -Their cousins, the Lusitanians and the Celt-Iberians, were put to the sword by Graccus c. 180 BCE and by Marcus Claudius Marcellus c. 150 BCE.
    -Their descendants, the Gallaecians, were put to the sword by Julius Caesar c. 60 BCE.
    -Again, the Gallaecians and the Asturians were put to the sword, this time, by Caesar Augustus during the Cantabrian Wars c. 19 CE.

d. Is there a continuity of Celtic presence in modern day northwestern Iberia? I think so.
    -The modern-day Galicians are noted for wearing kilts and playing bagpipes.
    -The Galicians do carry Celtic R-DF27 as a downstream genetic marker.
    -But, they do not speak a Celtic derivative language. 

When concluding against the inclusion of the historically Celtic regions Galicia and Asturias in Spain, the 1987 Celtic League Annual General Meeting stated that, because the Celtic League's specific function, "to work for the reinstatement of our languages ... and the attainment of ... political autonomy", must remain undiluted, "this AGM considers that it would be condescending and inappropriate to offer a limited status to the applicant nations [i.e., Galicia and Asturias] within the Celtic League."

    "Celtic League" <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_League#Branches> 3 January 2021.

From my original argument, the Celtic R-DF27 marker makes them Celts with or without speaking a Celtic language.

3. The Atlantic Celts [R-L21]

We cannot end the discussion of Ancient Migrations without a more detailed discussion of R-L21. The Atlantic Celts have been described as the quintessential British Celt paternal lineage. But, they were not the first to settle in Britain.

Genome-wide ancient DNA studies indicate predominantly Aegean ancestry for continental Neolithic farmers, but also variable admixture with local Mesolithic hunter-gatherers [I2].* Neolithic cultures first appear in Britain circa 4000 BC, a millennium after they appeared in adjacent areas of continental Europe. The pattern and process of this delayed British Neolithic transition remain unclear. We assembled genome-wide data from 6 Mesolithic and 67 Neolithic individuals found in Britain, dating 8500–2500  BC. Our analyses reveal persistent genetic affinities between Mesolithic British and Western European hunter-gatherers. We find overwhelming support for agriculture being introduced to Britain by incoming continental farmers, with small, geographically structured levels of hunter-gatherer ancestry. Unlike other European Neolithic populations, we detect no resurgence of hunter-gatherer ancestry at any time during the Neolithic in Britain. Genetic affinities with Iberian Neolithic individuals indicate that British Neolithic people were mostly descended from Aegean farmers [G2a]** who followed the Mediterranean route of dispersal. We also infer considerable variation in pigmentation levels in Europe by circa 6000 BC.

    "Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain," Nature, Ecology & Evolution <https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-019-0871-9> 8 April 2021.

*Possibly Haplogroup I2.

The diversity below S2639 in the British Isles is so great that it appears valid to conclude that this man spent most or all of his life there about 7000 years ago. This predates the introduction of agriculture into the region by about 1000 years. This affirms the commonly accepted view that I2 was associated with hunter-gatherers in Europe.

    "I2-S2639 Mesolithic British," <https://phylogeographer.com/i2-s2639-mesolithic-british/> 8 April 2021.

** Possibly Haplogroup G2a, the cousins of Otzi, the Ice Man.

Neolithic herders and farmers from the Near East appear to have belonged predominantly to haplogroup G2a, with minorities of J1 and T. Ancient DNA tests have confirmed the present of G2a in all Neolithic sites in Europe tested to date, including numerous samples from the Cardium Pottery, Starčevo and and Linear Pottery cultures. . . .

    "Genetic History of the British and the Irish," Eupedia <https://www.eupedia.com/genetics/britain_ireland_dna.shtml#stone_age> 8 April 2021.

In about 2,100 BCE, the Atlantic Celts crossed the English Channel to settle in Britain and then Ireland. Previously, there was a settled population of Neolithic farmers in Britain. As happened in other locations during the migrations of the Indo-European peoples, local female populations were subsumed into the greater tribe. But, local descendants of male Mediterranean farmer populations were replaced by R-L21. From this point forward, the base population of Britain and Ireland was set. All further invasions would add to the character of the Bretons. But, the Celt/ Breton stock would remain the predominant populace.

Extraordinary new genetic evidence is revealing how Britain experienced a mysterious almost total change in its population in just a few centuries after the construction of Stonehenge. It suggests that some sort of social, economic or epidemiological catastrophe unfolded.

The great 20-30 tonne stones of Stonehenge were erected by Neolithic farmers whose ancestors had lived in Britain for at least the previous 1,500 years – and new genetic research on 51 skeletons from all over Neolithic Britain has now revealed that during the whole of the Neolithic era, the country was inhabited mainly by olive-skinned, dark-haired Mediterranean-looking people.

But some 300 to 500 years after the main phase of Stonehenge was built, that mainly Mediterranean-looking British Neolithic-originating element of the population had declined from almost 100 percent to just 10 per cent of the population. The new genetic research reveals that the other 90 per cent were a newly-arrived central-European- originating population (known to archaeologists as the Beaker People) who appear to have settled in Britain between 2500 BC and 2000 BC via the Netherlands.

    "Britain's prehistoric catastrophe revealed: How 90% of the neolithic population vanished in just 300 years," Independent.Co.UK <https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/> 8 April 2021.

Concurrently, the Bronze Age began in Ireland about 2,100 BCE. Is this possibly because the Atlantic Celts took Bronze Age technology to the distant corners of Europe?

Originally, all the descendants of R-L21 spoke p-Celt/ Brittonic; as R-L21 spread their native Brittonic language throughout the British Isles. At the time, R-L21 was the dominant ethnicity and Brittonic was the common language in Britain and Ireland. A thousand plus years later, the Gaels (R-DF27) brought q-Celt/ Gaelic to Ireland. And their descendants, the Scoti took q-Celt/ Gaelic to Scotland. Thus, we will meet up with R-L21 again. 

Today, most Celtic people of Ireland and Britain carry Atlantic Celt (R-L21) genes. And, the Welsh Celts speak p-Celt/ Brittonic/ Welsh, a remnant of the original Brittonic language. The Irish and Scot Celts also carry Atlantic Celt (R-L21) genes. But, they speak q-Celt/ Goidelic/ Gaelic. [NEXT]

Caveat

This site is provided for reference only. Except where specifically cited, information contained is conjecture and should not be considered as fact.
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